Migratory birds are bad news

Each time Oranchimeg bat sees a migratory bird in her poultry farm just out side the Mongolian capital, it sends shivers down her spine. These birds carry the H5N1 virus that causes highly pathogenic avian influenza, she says alarmingly “we try to keep them off the farm. They’re bad and can cause my chickens to fall sick”.

Indeed poultry farming is big business for Oranchimeg who has 4500 imported broilers from Russia and china, kept indoors in battery cages with artificial lighting. The Mongolian poultry farmer sees an income of over $450 a day from the sale of eggs to supermarkets around Ulan Bator and the last thing she wants is for bird flu to jeopardize that . Oranchimeg’s farm is what the UN food and agriculture Organization (FAO) would term as a sector two farming type where poultry production is one a commercial scale with moderate to high bio-security where the birds are kept indoors continuously and prevented from being in contact with other poultry or wild life . though Oranchimeg’s chickens are protected from wild birds, water from a nearby lake that is pumped to her farm for her poultry is not . and that really worries her. I saw a ministry of food and Agriculture public service announcement on TV. That wild birds could spread the bird flu virus through water from their droppings , she said emphatically because of this I’m constantly monitoring the health of my chickens and vaccinating them once every three months with the help of veterinary department field workers, she added. According to prof.D.Otgonbaatar, executive director of Mongolia’s centre of communicable diseases with natural Foci, the H5N1 avian influenza virus has adapted to the environment in such a way that it uses water for survival and to spread. The water in turn influences movement, social behavior and migration patterns of water bird species. It therefore of great importance to know the ecological strategy of influenza virus as well, in order to fully understands this disease and to control outbreaks when they occur, he said.

Experts say the danger is that the virus will evolve just slightly into a form that people can easily catch and pass to one another, in which case the transmission rate would soar, causing a pandemic in which millions of people could die. A deep concern in Mongolia is also the possible cross species jump of the H5N1 virus to horses.

According to FAO livestock figures, are about 2.2 million horses in Mongolia that has a human population of 2.79 million. It is widely known that horses are susceptible to two relatively host- specific influenza A virus, H3N8 and H7N7. and this deeply troubles prof. Otgonbaatar . the habitat of Mongolian horses and migratory birds overlap as they share common water sources . if H5N1 virus is present in migratory birds there is potential for horses to be exposed to this virus via contaminated water he pointed out.

The Mongolian government has started research to see if horses are susceptible to the H5N1 virus with the help of agencies like FAO and funding from the Japanese government . urgent surveillance is needed around lake areas which are also shared by horses and we hope to get more funds from international donors to be able to do that efficiently, added prof. Otgonbaatar.

Beauty tips

Lips care
a) Lips: - when applying lip- stick, one should always use lip brush as it always defines the lip to a better shape. It gives you total control over how much lip- stick you are applying, and blotting between coats, built up and stabilizes the colours of your lips but not the thickness. But many of us feel lazy and prefer to use the lip- stick straight away. This week I am giving you a few different tips for those who prefer to use the brush, and how to clean a lip brush between applications, long with a few lip liner tips.

Cleaning techniques

To remove lipstick from the brush, clean it with a small quantity of acetone and wipe with a clean cloth.
You should try and buy a lipstick brush with a lid. After applying lip-stick, wipe off the color form the brush with a bit of Vaseline or a drop of Johnson’s baby oil. This will clean your brush effectively and the Vaseline or the oil will keep your lips soft.
To clean the lipstick brush between application, dip the used brush in a little hydrogen peroxide solution available an at all chemists’ and wipe dry with a soft muslin cloth.
Hairspray often work as a pre- wash spray for brushes. Rub the brush vigorously with a petroleum jelly and wash. Alternately, apply some toothpaste well in to the brush and then wash as normal.
After each application, wipe off the lipstick brush with a moist cotton ball. Then clean our brush in lukewarm soapy water to which one teaspoon of paraffin or ammonia has been added . Afterwards, rinse it in lukewarm water to which a pinch of soda Vicar has been added, this will keep the stubborn brushes clean.

Liner strokes
If you want your lip stick to last, use a lip pencil as a base. Outline color of your lips with pencil, nude, if your lipstick shade is light, and apply the lipstick on top.
If you want a softer smudgier, less define lips, then don’t use pencil or lip liners. If you don’t want your lipstick or even gloss to feather, then outline your lips with a lip pencil.

short news

News

Quake hits Indonesia
Jakarta: a 5.1 magnitude deep sea earthquake hit Indonesia’s province of south Sulawesi on Friday, meteorology agency officials said. The quake hit at 0633 GMT and was centered 111 km. under the sea floor, some 150 km. northeast of the south Sulawesi capital, Makassar.


Floods kill nine
Mogadishu : raging flood waters killed at least nine people , including five sleeping children , overnight as a third week of heavy rains pounded southern Somalia, bringing the death toll to at least 89,officials said on Friday . And with no end in sight to unusually heavy seasonal rains, UN officials said conflict could badly hurt emergency relief efforts for nearly a million Somalis.

Rockets delivered
Moscow: Russia has begun deliveries of the Tor – M1 air defense rocket system to Iran, Russian news agencies quoted military industry sources as saying on Friday. “Deliveries” of the Tor-Ml have begun. The first systems have already been delivered to Tehran, “ITAR-TASS quoted an unnamed source as saying.

Envoy recalled
KIGALI: Rwanda on Friday recalled its ambassador to France and hinted it might break diplomatic relations with Paris in a row over arrest warrants issued by a French judge related to 1994 genocide. A day after more than 25,000 people railed in Kigali to denounce France, alleged French complicity in the genocide and the judge who issued warrants, Rwanda’s foreign minister accused Paris of trying to destroy his government.

Pearl Harbor , 65 years later

On December 7, 1941, the us naval base at pearl harbor, Hawaii was attacked. The bombing killed 2,388 Americans, put much of the pacific fleet out of commission and came while the Japanese ambassador in Washington was preparing for a diplomatic appointment at the state department.
Among the losses was the battleship Arizona, which went down with nearly all hands on board. It is still there as a national shrined. In President Roosevelt’s speech to congress the next day asking for a declaration of war against Japan. It followed up on December 11 with retaliatory declarations of war against Germany and Italy. world war 2 was the last time the us has declare war , though it has fought three major wars ( Korea , Vietnam, Afghanistan- Iraq ) . It seems worthwhile to reflect on some of their consequences.
The attack unified a country that had been divided over the war in Europe, but it also terrified the country. This was much the same reaction as followed the attacks of 9/11. Just as 9/11 led to unjustified imprisonment of some Muslims living in the us, so Pearl Harbor produce persecution of Japanese American citizens. Most of them lived in California; they were interned in remote camps in Wyoming and other western states. Although the Japanese were not tortured, their treatment was as morally bad as what’s happened under Bush’s watch in Gitmo , Abu Ghraib, and other prisons . Critics of President Bush should take note. In 1988, congress apologized to the interned Japanese. It also provided payments of $20,000 to each surviving internee. It marked the faint beginnings of the civil rights movement.
After black Americans had served honorably in the armed forces, the injustice of forcing them back into a segregated society was intolerable. President Truman used an executive order to integrate the armed forces after the war. Other steps followed. The UN was born out of the resolve not to allow a repetition of world war -2. The senate, which refused to approve America’s membership in the League of Nations after world war -1, approved US membership in the UN after world war -2. Perhaps the most awesome consequence of Pearl Harbor was the development of nuclear weapons. Two of these were used to end the war against Japan. Historians have argued that these should not have been used, that Japan could have been driven to surrender by bombing. True but at what cost? Both Japanese and Americans casualties would have been far greater, and the war would have been prolonged. During a visit to Harvard University, Harry s Truman was asked what he was most proud of. His answer was that after America crushed its enemies, it embraced them and turned them into allies.
A final irony: Japanese investors now own much of the island their grandfathers once tried to destroy, and are tolerated by the country they once tried to conquer.

flage nepal

hot news

Political parties, organizations celebrate landmark peace accord
Reporter,
PEACE NEPAL
KATHMANDU, Nov 21 - In wake of Tuesday's historical Comprehensive Peace Accord (CPA), chief political parties, their sister organizations, civil societies, various organizations and individuals from different professions on Wednesday organized victory rallies and meetings across the nation.
Various quarters of society have also decided to celebrate the occasion like Deepawali.
Meanwhile, the SPA today organized rallies and meetings in the capital. The victory rally which began from Ratnapark is slated to converge into a mass meeting later today after parading through the streets of Kathmandu.
Similarly, the ruling CPN-UML has urged all to take out rallies and assemblies across the nation.
According to sources, the UML has even forwarded letters to the concerned agencies to celebrate the historic signing in a manner befitting a festival.
Calling yesterday's accord a "pivotal fist step" in the implementation of the agreements reached on November 8, the CPN-UML has highlighted the scrupulous implementation of the same.
Likewise, the CPN-M also organized victory rallies and mass meetings across the nation. Labeling the November 21 accord, "an important victory" in its 11-year long armed struggle, the CPN-M too urged everyone to take out victory rallies across the country.
Welcoming the agreement, the Rastriya Janashakti Party underscored a thorough implementation of the CPA.
Issuing separate press releases today, the Federation of Nepalese Professionals, student unions, Federation of Domestic and Small Scale Industries, Association of Nepalese Teachers, Federation of Nepalese Journalists, Consumer's Forum, Nepal, Human Rights and Environmental organizations have hailed the landmark peace accord.
The Nepali Congress of Lalitpur, has decided to organize Deepawali at Lalitpur's Krishna Mandir while the Thamel Democratic Tourism Society is taking out a victory rally today.
The international community, including the UN and the US has hailed the landmark peace accord.

photography

STEP 2: CAMERA CONTROLS / Focusing
As we have seen, a fixed position lens on a simple camera is placed so as to give an equally sharp image from about 6.5ft (2m.) to infinity. At closer distances, the nearer you are to your subject the more the image will be out of focus. This can be avoided if you have a lens on your camera which can be focused: that is, moved away from the film plane, as shown in the diagram. Right, the nearer the subject is to a lens; the farther behind the lens its image is formed. Thus for close subjects the lens must move away from the film plane to focus the image.

Subject distance and focus
When a convex lens is focused for very distant subjects it is positioned at its own focal length from the film, for
Example, when the film is 50mmaway from a 50mm lens. If the subject is closer, its ray are much less parallel when they reach the lens , and the " bending power" of the glass will only bring them into focus , to form a larger image , at a greater distance from the lens , as shown in the diagram ,right. On many cameras, the lens moves forward to compensate for this, so that the image still focuses on the film plane. The nearer the subject, the greater the distance required between lens and film.

Being able to focus the lens gives you two important advantages: you can get sharp pictures when you are quite close to your subject, and you can give emphasis to one part of the subject by focusing on it and allowing everything nearer or further away to appear progressively un sharp In both cases it is vital to know which part of the scene is being sharply rendered. An adjustable focusing lens body therefore has a scale (or at least a series of symbols) showing the correct lens positions for focusing on various distances. To set this you have to estimate the subject distance, unless you have a camera with a focusing aid coupled with the viewfinder or through – the – lens focusing, as shown opposite.
Using the focus control
Most lenses are focused by turning the largest control ring on the lens barrel. This will slowly extend or retract the lens. At the same time a scale of subjects distances moves past a fixed mark. On end of this scale is marked “inf.” Or ∞, which denotes infinity, on this setting the lens is at its closest position to the film, and will give sharp images of distant subjects – in practice about 50ft ( 15.2m) or beyond . at the other end of the focusing scale, which may read 3 ft ( 0.9 m ) , the lens will have moved out to its furthest distance from the film. Some lenses have a greater focusing movement (and therefore allow closer photographer) than others quality , since a lens designed for general distance photography may not perform so well when used extremely close up. Attachments for close- up work are discussed on pages 102-3.
Focusing symbols Some simple cameras use symbols on the focusing scale, like those above, which focus the lens for close – up, middle distance.

The effect of focusing

The tow pictures above differ only in the camera focus setting and show how this control can be used to pick out parts of the subject. In the picture, left, the lens setting was about the same as for a fixed focus lens – 30 ft (9m). Almost all the picture, except for the fore- in the picture, right, and the lens was focused for about 3 ft (0.9m) so that the foreground appears sharp while detail in the background is un sharp. In this way we can use the focus to concentrate interest on areas of your subject, in the same way as subconsciously you focus your eyes on selected parts of your field of vision.

photograpgy

Viewfinder system
The viewfinder on a direct vision camera often shows slightly more of the subject than will be recorded. This is intended to help you when framing. Lines, or corners marked in the viewfinder frame, below right, show the true picture area.
Direct vision viewfinders are also subject to a framing error created by "parallax". This is caused by the position of the viewfinder – above and to one side of the lens. for distant subjects , this slights misalignment does not affect the picture , but close-up the viewfinder may show more of the top and one side of the subject than will appear in the picture , see above . when working at the nearest limit of the simple camera’s sharpness –often around 6 fit ( 2m) – try to aim the
Camera a little high, so that the subject appears low in the frame, to avoid cutting off parts of the subject.

learn more photography

Introduction

The first, if we want to deeply study or want to know about photography. We must know their history too.
Now today, we can see photography is very advanced and very important for our life
It helps more Easier to our life and useful for various field like our daily life, Science & technology, space research, news, industries and others .so we must know if how the photography was invent.

Invention

In 1727 AD German physicist john heinrich Schulz working with some kinds of chemicals, like silver and chalk added nitric acid when he doing this on his hands he is near of the window. And there sunlight inter from the window when he rub that solution
On his hands suddenly some part of his hands were black because of his hands was sunlight rays ,

That time Schulz Invent the temporary shadow picture with stencil where that solution are used.
In 1835 William Henry fox Talbot was success to invent of paper negative, he does the patent right of his calotype process in 1841 he paste silver iodide on the paper, that time this kinds of paper needed acetonitrate or, gallonitrate of silver bath.

0n august19th, 1839 in paris, Louis Daguerre had discovered a way to capture the image in the camera obscura by the action of light itself He had developed a suitable light sensitive material which could record an image direct.

Vienna scientist Joseph petzval invent the first time success full lenses. This type
Of lens could be take the photograph with short time one of the astrologist sir William Herschel introduced the word of “photography” for world. Frederic escort archer helps to make wet colodian plate in 1851 AD .this time photographer needed .to make
Plats of own self when they want to take picture .whenever this plats are wet
They should be taken the picture. When these kinds of plats are exposed suddenly
its needed to develop, fix and dry immediately .for the out door photography . Photographer needed dark room too, they use light proof tent for the dark room.

Dry plates are invent on 1870AD in this plate silver Haloed and pure
Transparent gelatin mixture is painted in 1880 AD. George east man introduced commercially. This plats in America. In this time many kinds of quality lenses are invent and. Time many kinds of plats too increased.

It was forty years before photographs began to appear on the printed page. In book, news papers and journals, more before first films and then television, brought motion pictures into our everyday lives. Today we are so existence of photography. Now with out photography, our experience of the world around us would be limited only to what we could see with our own eyes.

CAMERA TECHNIQU



STEP 1 : The simple camera
STEP 2 : Camera control
STEP 3 :Controlling picture sharpness

This first main section introduces you to the basis tools and materials of photography, and establishes fundamental camera handling skills. It draws directly on the principles of image forming and light sensitivity. Starting with the simplest kind of modern camera, it progresses to the popular single lens reflex type. Each camera control is looked at in turn. To see what it contribute to practical picture making. Combining the various controls leads on to choosing film and the measurement and control of exposure.
You need not have a dark room. Or do you own processing, or even have any knowledge of how cameras work, before starting this section. If you are absolute beginner, it is the most important technical part of the book. It explains and establishes all the terms, such as f number, depth of field, and exposure that you will meet regularly in later sections. If you already have some experience with a camera use the section as a refresher course to check your knowledge.
Work through the material page by page, because terms are explained as introduced, and lead on one from another. Don’t limit to your learning to reading. Test out the statements made and tackle some of the assignments. You will find it much more interesting and instructional if you take pictures as you go along. All you need is a camera with a normal lens. Some form of exposure meter, and a reasonable supply of black and white film.
You must expect to use a fair amount of film to begin with as it will take practice to be able to predict your results accurately, you will be making comparison picture , experimenting and inevitably making mistakes. It is important to practice as much as you can , so that you have some practical results for comparison. You will see and remember the points this book is making much better if they appear in your own picture.
Think carefully before composing and making the settings for every shot. What effect are you trying to achieve? Perhaps you are comparing the results of different settings ;or applying a technique to a particular subject or (and this is equally important) breaking the rules to see what visual effect will occur, get into the habit of taking several versions, perhaps making notes so you can remember the settings . Have the films processed and printed promptly, and learn to assess your results critically along with the notes you have made.
Don’t expect perfect results at this stage. Your early efforts will be in the nature of exercises. Concentrate on learning from your mistakes as well as your successes. Keep to simple subjects at first, and avoid difficult lighting conditions such as extreme contrasts between highlights and shadows or dim indoor conditions. Your main aim should be to get comfortable with your camera, and familiar with its controls. Only then can you begin to “work through the camera” and respond freely to your subject matter and lighting conditions.

Arrangement of steps
The section begins by looking at a cheap simple camera, because this has all the essential controls – lens, shutter and viewfinder in their most basic form. You must still learn to load the film in the same way, and with the same accuracy and speed , as with other more expensive cameras . but simple camera settings for lens and shutter are either fixed , or have a very narrow range . this makes the camera uncomplicated and quick to use.
This very lack of control soon becomes frustrating , however . you will want to be able to work closer to your subject , to take pictures under all sorts of lighting conditions, or to emphasize one part of a picture by making everything else un Sharp. For this you need a wider choice of lens and shutter settings. So the next step moves on to a more elaborate camera which offers much more flexibility- with fully variable lens , aperture and shutter . here the single lens reflex type of 35 mm camera is mainly featured because of it popularity and comparative simplicity.
With a single lens reflex camera , such as a pentax , Nikon , Minolta or canon you can predict the appearance of your photographs with great accuracy , because you view the actual image formed by the taking lens . lenses and accessories which you can build up as your experience of photography grows.
The 35 mm single lens reflex camera is therefore the principle camera used throughout the book. But although most diagrams show this short this camera. The information is valid for other cameras too. If for example you own a larger camera, perhaps a twin lens reflex, or a good non reflex 35 mm camera, you can work through the book just as well. Most of the principles discussed apply equally to all camera types. Where their mechanical or optical arrangements differ, these will be shown.
Reading over this section should enable you to identify all the controls on whatever camera you possess, and see how they each alter your results. The first control is the focusing ring on the lens. As you have already seen on pages 20-1.focusing a lens has a similar effect to focusing the eye . cameras use various devices to show you which parts of the scene are being sharply focused. On some you just set the subject to camera distance on a scale. Others show you a double picture in the view finder .Until the focus is set properly. Best of all are cameras with focusing screens that show you how the image actually looks – which different parts are sharp or un sharp. And what the overall effect will be. The single lens reflex is one such camera.
This section and the next deal only with the “normal” lens aperture .this follows on from focusing . partly because it is often placed right next to the focusing ring on a camera , but mostly because it also affects sharpness in your pictures . the amount of light entering the
Camera .to control aperture , you most get used to a scales of “ f - numbers” , and understand
How different settings will affect the amount of the scene rendered sharp at one focusing
Distance .it helps if you can actually see the effect of altering aperture on your viewing
Screen . here again a single lens reflex camera is the best .
The third control introduced in the shutter . you are probably quite familiar with the control
, because no camera is without it . shutter determines when , and for how long. film is exposed
To light . the speed you select has some interesting effects on the way moving subjects
( or movements of the camera) are recorded in your photographs.
Aperture and shutter together control exposure the total quantity of light given to your film. One alters the amount, or “intensity”. Of light admitted. The other item that light is allowed to act. Many beginners in photography are worried by having to judge correct exposure. But it is surprisingly straightforward, as a rule .modern light-riding meters can be very accurate .and variations from correct settings may still give acceptable result on today’s black and white film. (color film requires greater accuracy ). The important thing is to know how to make readings as quickly and accurately as possible .and what short of visual effects you can achieve by giving deliberate over or underexposure to particular subjects .

The development of camera technology
This section is also worth studying if you are thinking of buying a camera . it will highlight features that may affect your photography. So you can assess the various models and prices more critically . the general trend is for cameras and the pictures they take to be made steadily smaller. The first popular camera . invented by George Eastman ninety years ago. Took 100 pictures 2/3.4 inch wide . it even had to be returned to the manufacturer .some years later, Thomas Edison, working on an instrument for making movies, used Eastman Kodak roll film slit down the middle – so it became 1/3.8 ins (35mm) wide. He cut perforations down each side for transporting it through the camera and projector. Much later, in 1924, an employee of E.leitze the German microscope manufacturers, designed a little camera for taking still pictures on length of this 35 mm camera the most popular format.
Up until world war 2 however, most family cameras used Rollifilm from box cameras to precision types such as the Rollieiflex. Serious photographers used even larger cameras taking plates (and later sheet film). 35 mm cameras were not very popular, because prints made by contact from the tiny negatives were too small .lens quality was poor unless you bought the most expensive 35mm models. So the “miniature” film was unable to resolve really fine detail .and gave disappointing enlargements .to measure exposure you had to use tables or a meter the size of a modern cassette tape recorder.
During the 1950s and 60s , improvements in lens optics and the production ( mostly in Japan) of precision single lens reflex cameras made the 35mm camera the world’s most versatile and popular design. Improvements in precision optics still continue today’s even smaller , 110 size camera ( using 16mm wide film) will eventually offer all the facilities of 35mm. provided that final prints are of equally good quality , a smaller, handier camera will always have great appeal.
In 1948 the first instant picture camera system was invented .this camera and special film offer the tremendous advantage of allowing you to check results on the spot , and if necessary take the picture again. There are disadvantages, camera size is directly linked to picture size; materials are expensive; and for serious photography , image manipulation is very restricted , particularly since on the majority of systems you do not retain a negative but get a print direct.

Deciding on a camera
Choosing a camera today can be as easy or difficult as choosing a car. What short of work do you want to do with it ? how much can you afford for both the equipment and the materials? Which type and shape of camera design suits you best? If you intend to do a lot of photography you are likely to spend more on film than you spent on the camera. Film 35mm wide in 36 exposure lengths is still cheaper per picture than either roll film or 16 mm wide 110 film . in its convenient but costly drop-in cartridge.
In the 35mm camera range, designs using a separate (non reflex) viewfinder system are cheaper than the mechanically more complex single lens reflex. But look ahead – will you soon want to buy extra lenses or other special attachments? If so, a reflex backed up by a whole system of lenses and accessories would be a better choice .
Having decided the size and type of camera you need, think hard about what you can afford. Cameras are now so competitive that you generally get what you pay for .current catalogs will show three or four different brands at each of several price levels .how will you spend your money – on a really good camera body and normal lens, for additions later ?or on a cheaper model together with several lenses?
Narrow down two or three camera models you can afford, and then actually handle each one of them. If you can , borrow a camera of the model you are considering buying, to make sure it suits you .you must consider features such as size and weight; how easy you find the viewing and focusing the speed and convenience of changing aperture and shutter settings ; even the way the way the camera “ sits ” in your hands .
Most cameras have excellent built – in light meters and these are worth comparing ( see pp. 40-1 ) .you can even buy a camera with a “ fully automatic ” meter , which takes over all exposure decisions on a programmed basis. this efficient and convenient ; but long term it will prove restrictive . you don ‘t know what settings are beings made , and cannot give a selective exposure for a part of a subject , or intentionally over – or underexpose for particular effects perhaps a camera offering the choice of automatic or manual metering is best .you can learn to use the manual settings , creatively exploiting the various side – effects they produce. but you can still switch to automatic for quick shots when a generally correct exposure is all you need.,
Don’t overlook reliability. It is very depressing to find that a whole film has turned out blank, because the shutter stuck, or the film failed to wind on. Often reliability is reflected in price, so it really is worth buying the best camera you can afford. A well known make is a reasonable guarantee of quality.
A thorough understanding of your camera will give you confidence and control when you start work on the important picture making aspects of photography, in the next section. So use this section to make yourself completely familiar with the basic tools of photography, and particularly with your own camera’s range and limitations. The four steps in this section are: the basic camera ; the camera controls ( focusing, aperture, shutter ); controlling picture sharpness ; and measuring exposure. Information or more advanced equipment and accessories is given in the section beginning on page 89, and further details of camera types in the appendix.

STEP 1: THE SIMPLE CAMERA

you can take good photographs with the simplest of cameras – it need only be a light – tight box with a lens (to select and focus reflected light rays from the subject ) , a shutter (to admit light briefly to the film ) , and a compartment for film . A simple viewing system is helpful , to show you which area of a scene will be recorded . many people start their photography with a simple camera like this – a basic , non – adjustable 35 mm or 110 pocket camera , such as those shown
below . however sophisticated your own camera may be, understanding the components and working of a simple camera is important since it applies the basic optical principles of photography (discussed on pp. 1619 ) in an elementary manner .
most simple cameras have a fixed focus is not variable, the lens being set to give maximum overall sharpness , as explained below . behind the lens, a metal shutter consisting of moveable blades or a rotating disk protects the films from light . when you press the shutter release button on the top of the camera , the blades open , or the disk rotates , and lights falls briefly on the sensitive film surface . the viewing system is usually a tube on top of the camera with a lens at each end . through it , you look directly at the subject , which will appear reduced in size . this view is not exactly that “seen” by the taking lens and this creates a problem at close distance as explained on the opposite page .cameras with this type of viewing are called direct vision viewfinder cameras.

How to save your self when you are in jungle alone


When you will be in jungle
You will enjoy there but you could get more kinds of trouble too, so I want to share my experience with you, I think it will be more helpful for you.

1) when you got elephant
2) when you got tiger
3) when you got lion
4) when you got monkey
5) when you got beer
6) when you got rhinoceros
7) When you got leopard
8) When you got snack
9) When you got wild boar

1) when you see elephants in front of you in jungle you should scared that time and your mind doesn’t work too, huge elephant can run in front of you and scared you more and more their activities but don’t nervous any way, you should be still and as soon as possible open your cloths (full nude) and dance roughly like monkey jumping and cry loudly too like hhhaaaa- hooooo and you can see the elephants run away from there. You know why they run away from there because when you dancing very roughly and crying loudly they don’t understand if what’s happening in the jungle and when they couldn’t decide, they feels if the natural disaster will be coming now so that they will be runaway from there .
2) when you see the tiger in jungle don’t scared and don’t take any step just look straight them don’t do the any activity at that time, suddenly you can see the tiger go away from there smoothly then you can go fast from there .but you must understand when the tiger are scared they will be dangerous if they are not scared for you they could not dangerous for you. Incase of ( if they have baby , if they are injured or if they are very old they will be dangerous that time ) so that if you have some kinds of fire or burn equipment and white towel or clothes you will be safe. These kinds of tiger are define with their activity When you see these kinds of tiger over there as soon as you must fire around of you and hang on your white garments in front of tiger and you will be safe now. If the tiger want to attack you can see their tail will be strait and pulled up side and little fold and then pulled down three time his tail will be up and down and third time when his tail goes to down they jumped for the attack.
3) When you see the lion in jungle, follow instruction of phase 2 you must know if the lions are nonviolent animal so please don’t scared them.
4) Wow when you see the monkey they scared you they cry a lot and gather their friends too, when they feels, if you are scared they can beet you but don’t worry if you have gatish or stick they don’t come near of you ( gatish mean hand made stone throwing “y” type rubber belt attached little equipment )
5) Beer is other very dangerous animal if you see him in the jungle you can run down side In hilly reason if you are in flat reason you must run round of the tree and if you got the chance grab their both of hands between the tree and rub their chest on the tree he will be run very fast from there . beer are always want to safe their nose so that when they fallowing us they don’t see easily because their head turned left or right side so that they can not run easily upside . if you have stick in your hand and beat their nose he runaway very fast from there .actually they are very frightened animal.
6) Rhinoceros is other giant animal and so dangerous in the jungle if you see them and they are fallow you, you must run circle and circle and very carefully when you rich their back you must runaway very fast from there approximately 60 meter.
7) When you see the leopard in the jungle you have must stick and you must look strait in their eyes and be careful to their activity if they want to attack to you look their tail if the tail is going to be strait and puling up you must show stick him if their tail going to be up and down he can attack to you so that be careful.
8) All kinds of snack has similar behave in the all over the world if they don’t afraid they never attack to anybody so please don’t scared them when you see the snack in front of you in the jungle you must be still and look their activity and very slowly you must take step back and if you have some white cloths you must put the hang on in front of you .
9) wild boar is a very dangerous animal they don’t give you any chance to take any precaution when they want to attack to you, in this condition you must found any tree or rock or that type anything as soon as you must hide there wild boar attack you one time only so you can safe for wild boar too.

models

A model is a person who poses or displays for purposes of art, fashion, or other products and advertising.

Modeling is distinguished from other types of public performance, such as an acting, dancing or mime artistry, although the boundary is not well defined. Appearing in a movie or a play is generally not considered to be modeling, regardless of the nature of the role. However, many models can also describe themselves as actors. Fashion modeling is similar to acting, as the models have to express an emotion and feeling in their photographs.

The term fashion usually applies to a prevailing mode of expression, but quite often applies to a personal mode of expression that may or may not adhere to prevailing ideals. Inherent in the term is the idea that the mode will change more quickly than the culture as a whole. The terms "fashionable" and "unfashionable" are employed to describe whether someone or something fits in with the current popular mode of expression. The term "fashion" is frequently used in a positive sense, as a synonym for glamour and style. In this sense, fashions are a sort of communal art, through which a culture examines its notions of beauty and goodness. The term "fashion" is also sometimes used in a negative sense, as a synonym for fads, trends, and materialism.

Fashions are social psychology phenomena common to many fields of human activity and thinking. The rises and falls of fashions have been especially documented and examined in the following fields:

Types of Models

Fashion models

Professional print model

Fashion models are used mainly to promote products (primarily clothing and accessories but almost anything else as well). There are two types of fashion models: high fashion and commercial. High fashion modeling is an art form of fashion. The photographer photographs the model in artistic themes that relate to the clothing promoted. The model uses their face and body to express different emotions required. High fashion is typical for work on campaigns, collections and magazine editorials for high fashion designers. These models are featured in high fashion magazines such as Vogue, W,Vanity Fair and ELLE. Clothing designers traditionally show their new collections in an annual fashion show, for buyers, the fashion industry, and the general public. Fashion models walk the runway, and pose to display clothing. High fashion models are generally 5 ft 9 in to 6 ft tall and are a very thin size 0–4 (105–107 lb for a 5 ft 9 in model). They generally have 32–35" (81-89cm) busts, 22–25" (56-64cm) waists and 33–36" (84-91cm) hips. High fashion models have strong, unique and distinctive features.

The Carlson Twins are male fashion models

Commercial modeling is generally respected less than high fashion modeling. There are different forms of commercial modeling: catalogue, cosmetics, commercial print, and swimsuit. Catalogue models vary from height and weight, compared to high fashion models. Unlike high fashion models, commercial models include plus-size models. The size of the model depends on the clothing. i.e. Plus sized models model for plus sized clothing. These models appear in catalogues. Cosmetics models model for makeup companies such as Revlon and Maybelline. Unlike catalogue models, the majority of cosmetics models have high fashion modeling body requirements. Cosmetics models work for television commercials, magazine advertisements, newspaper advertisements, and billboards. Commercial print models promote clothing/products on billboards, buses, magazines and newspapers. Swimsuit models promote swimsuit clothing in magazine ads, calenders, and magazines.

Model walking down catwalk (runway)

"Runway modeling," also known as "catwalk modeling," is displaying fashion, and is generally performed by "fashion models."

Photograph of Dovima taken in the 1950s by Edgar de Evia for a furrier

Supermodels are highly paid, top fashion models. These models have done every type of fashion modeling with great success. These female/male celebrity models have appeared on top fashion magazine covers, in catalogues, walked for top fashion shows, and are muses to photographers and designers. Supermodels are paid over tens of thousands of dollars every day, even for a simple photo shoot (photography session).

The first model to pave the way for what would become the supermodel was Lisa Fonssagrives^[1]. The relationship between her image on over 200 Vogue covers and her name recognition led to the future importance of Vogue in shaping future supermodels. Fonssagrives at the height of her career could be both sophisticated and yet a cook, with which every American woman could identify. Her image appeared on cover of every fashion magazine during the 1930s, 1940s and 1950s from Town & Country, Life and Vogue to the original Vanity Fair.

Notable supermodels include Beverly Peele, Gisele Bündchen, Christie Brinkley, Naomi Campbell, Cindy Crawford, Janice Dickinson, Heidi Klum, Elle Macpherson, Kate Moss, Halle Berry,Tyra Banks,Claudia Schiffer, Mae Riley,Cheryl Tiegs and Twiggy.

Qualifications of a Fashion model

The Association of Model Agents (AMA) says that female models should be around 34-24-34 inches (86-61-86 cms) and at least five feet eight inches (1.72m) tall. [1]

History of fashion models

According to Charles Castle, the authour of "Model Girl", the first fashion model was Parisian shopgirl, Maria Vernet Worth. She supposedly became the first professional mannequin in 1852, to help her dress salesman husband. [2]

Other types of models

• Fitness modeling centers on displaying an athletic and healthy physique. Fitness models resemble bodybuilders, but with less emphasis on muscle size.
• Hip hop models
• Bikini Models are similar to fitness models with emphasis on a fit physique and the beauty of the female curves.

car insurance---

car picture

car insurance---

Basis of premium charges
Depending on the jurisdiction, the insurance premium can be either mandated by the government or determined by the insurance company in accordance to a framework of regulations set by the government. Often, the insurer will have more freedom to set the price on physical damage coverages than on mandatory liability coverages.
When the premium is not mandated by the government, it is usually derived from the calculations of an actuary based on statistical data. The premium can vary depending on many factors that are believed to have an impact on the expected cost of future claims.[2] Those factors can include the car characteristics, the coverage selected (deductible, limit, covered perils), the profile of the driver (age, gender, driving history) and the usage of the car (commute to work or not, predicted annual distance driven).[3][4]both the car and the driver, however the degree of each varies greatly.

Gender
Men average more miles driven per year than women do, and have a proportionally higher accident involvement at all ages. Insurance companies cite women's lower accident involvement in keeping the youth surcharge lower for young women drivers than for their male counterparts but adult rates are generally unisex. Mistaken reference to the lower rate for young women as "the women's discount" has caused confusion that was evident in news reports on a recently defeated EC proposal to make it illegal to consider gender in assessing insurance premiums . [5]. Ending the discount would have made no difference to most women's premiums. Changing to per-mile charges, however, would benefit anyone whose car was driven less than average, including the majority of women who are overcharged at current per-year rates.
Age
Teen drivers who have no driving record will have higher car insurance premiums. However young drivers are often offered discounts if they undertake further driver training on recognised courses, such as the Pass Plus scheme in the U.K. In the U.S. many insurers offer a good grade discount to students with a good academic record and resident student discounts to those who live away from home. Generally insurance premiums tend to become lower at the age of 25. Senior drivers are often eligible for retirement discounts.
Distance
Some car insurance plans do not differentiate in regard to how much the car is used. However, methods of differentiation would include:
Reasonable estimation
Several car insurance plans rely on a reasonable estimation of the average annual distance expected to be driven which is provided by the insured. This discount benefits drivers who drive their cars infrequently but has no actuarial value since it is unverified.
Odometer-based systems
Cents Per Mile Now[6](1986) advocates classified odometer-mile rates. After the company's risk factors have been applied and the customer has accepted the per-mile rate offered, customers buy prepaid miles of insurance protection as needed, like buying gallons of gasoline. Insurance automatically ends when the odometer limit (recorded on the car’s insurance ID card) is reached unless more miles are bought. Customers keep track of miles on their own odometer to know when to buy more. The company does no after-the-fact billing of the customer, and the customer doesn't have to estimate a "future annual mileage" figure for the company to obtain a discount. In the event of a traffic stop, an officer could easily verify that the insurance is current by comparing the figure on the insurance card to that on the odometer.
Critics point out the possibility of cheating the system by odometer tampering. Although the newer electronic odometers are difficult to roll back, they can still be defeated by disconnecting the odometer wires and reconnecting them later. However, as the Cents Per Mile Now website points out: "As a practical matter, resetting odometers requires equipment plus expertise that makes stealing insurance risky and uneconomical. For example, in order to steal 20,000 miles of continuous protection while paying for only the 2,000 miles from 35,000 miles to 37,000 miles on the odometer, the resetting would have to be done at least nine times to keep the odometer reading within the narrow 2,000-mile covered range. There are also powerful legal deterrents to this way of stealing insurance protection. Odometers have always served as the measuring device for resale value, rental and leasing charges, warranty limits, mechanical breakdown insurance, and cents-per-mile tax deductions or reimbursements for business or government travel. Odometer tampering—detected during claim processing—voids the insurance and, under decades-old state and federal law, is punishable by heavy fines and jail."
Under the cents-per-mile system, rewards for driving less are delivered automatically without need for administratively cumbersome and costly technology. Uniform per-mile exposure measurement for the first time provides the basis for statistically valid rate classes. Insurer premium income automatically keeps pace with increases or decreases in driving activity, cutting back on resulting insurer demand for rate increases and preventing today's windfalls to insurers when decreased driving activity lowers costs but not premiums.
GPS-based system
In 1998, Progressive Insurance started a pilot program in Texas in which volunteers installed a GPS-based technology called Autograph in exchange for a discount. The device tracked their driving behavior and reported the results via cellular phone to the company.[7] Policyholders were reportedly more upset about having to pay for the expensive device than they were over privacy concerns.[8]
In 1996, Progressive filed for and obtained a US patent (US patent 5,797134) on their process. Progressive has also filed corresponding patent applications in Europe and Japan. UK auto insurer, Norwich Union, has obtained an exclusive license to Progressive's European patent application. They have recently completed a successful pilot test of the technology and it is now available commercially under the tradename "Pay As You Drive™"[9]
OBDII-based system
In 2004, Progressive launched another pilot program to allow policyholders to earn a discount on their premiums by consenting to use its TripSense device. TripSense connects to a car's OnBoard Diagnostic(OBD-II) port, which exists in all cars built after 1996. The discount is forfeited if the device is disconnected for a significant amount of time.[10]
Auto Insurance in the United States

Coverage Available

The consumer may be protected with different coverage types depending on what coverage the insured purchases.[11]
In the United States, liability insurance covers claims against the policy holder and generally, any other operator of the insured’s vehicle, provided they do not live at the same address as the policy holder and are not specifically excluded on the policy. In the case of those living at the same address, they must specifically be covered on the policy. Thus it is necessary for example, when a family member comes of driving age they must be added on to the policy. Liability insurance sometimes does not protect the policy holder if they operate any vehicles other than their own. When you drive a vehicle owned by another party, you are covered under that party’s policy. Non-owners policies may be offered that would cover an insured on any vehicle they drive. This coverage is available only to those who do not own their own vehicle and is sometimes required by the government for drivers who have previously been found at fault in an accident.
Generally, liability coverage does extend when you rent a car. Comprehensive policies ("full coverage") usually also apply to the rental vehicle, although this should be verified beforehand. Full coverage premiums are based on, among other factors, the value of the insured’s vehicle. This coverage may not apply to rental cars because the insurance company does not want to assume responsibility for a claim greater than the value of the insured’s vehicle, assuming that a rental car may be worth more than the insured’s vehicle. Most rental car companies offer insurance to cover damage to the rental vehicle. These policies may be unnecessary for many customers as credit card companies, such as Visa and MasterCard, now provide supplemental collision damage coverage to rental cars if the transaction is processed using one of their cards. These benefits are restrictive in terms of the types of vehicles covered.[12]
Liability
Liability coverage provides a fixed dollar amount of coverage for damages that an insured becomes legally liable to pay due to an accident or other negligence. For example, if an insured drives into a telephone pole and damages the pole, liability coverage pays for the damage to the pole. In this example, the insured also may become liable for other expenses related to damaging the telephone pole, such as loss of service claims (by the telephone company).
Liability coverage is available either as a combined single limit policy or as a split limit policy:

Combined Single Limit

A combined single limit combines property damage liability coverage and bodily injury coverage under one single combined limit. For example, an insured with a combine single liability limit strikes another vehicle and injures the driver and the passenger. Payments for the damages to the other driver's car, as well as payments for injury claims for the driver and passenger, would be paid out under this same coverage.

Split Limits

A split limit liability coverage policy splits the coverages into property damage coverage and bodily injury coverage. In the example given above, payments for the other driver's vehicle would be paid out under property damage coverage, and payments for the injuries would be paid out under bodily injury coverage.
Note that bodily injury liability coverage is also usually split as well into a maximum payment per person and a maximum payment per accident.

Collision

Collision coverage provides coverage for an insured's vehicle that is involved in an accident, subject to a deductible. This coverage is designed to provide payments to repair the damaged vehicle, or payment of the cash value of the vehicle if it is not repairable. Collision coverage is optional. Collision Damage Waiver (CDW) is the term used by rental car companies for collision coverage.
Comprehensive
Comprehensive (a.k.a. - Other Than Collision) coverage provides coverage, subject to a deductible, for an insured's vehicle that is damaged by incidents that are not considered Collisions. For example, fire, theft (or attempted theft), vandalism, weather, or impacts with animals are just some types of Comprehensive losses.

Uninsured/Underinsured Coverage

Uninsured/Underinsured coverage, also known as UM/UIM, provides coverage if another at-fault party either does not have insurance, or does not have enough insurance. In effect, your insurance company acts as at fault party's insurance company.
In the United States, the definition of an uninsured/underinsured motorist, and corresponding coverages, are set by the state you reside in.

Loss of Use

Loss of Use coverage, also known as rental coverage, provides reimbursement for rental expenses associated with having an insured vehicle repaired due to a covered loss. Loan/Lease Payoff

Loan/Lease Payoff coverage, also known as GAP coverage or GAP insurance, [13] was established in the early 1980's to provide protection to consumers based upon buying and market trends.

Due to the sharp decline in value immediately following purchase, there is generally a period in which the amount owed on the car loan exceeds the value of the vehicle, which is called "upside-down" or negative equity. Thus, if the vehicle is totalled at this point, the owner will still owe potentially thousands of dollars on the loan. The escalating price of cars, longer-term auto loans, and the increasing popularity of leasing gave birth to GAP protection. GAP waivers provide protection for consumers when a "gap" exists between the actual value of their vehicle and the amount of money owed to the bank or leasing company. In many instances this insurance will also pay the deductible on the primary insurance policy. These policies are often offered at the auto dealership as a comparatively low cost add on that can be put into the car loan which provides coverage for the duration of the loan.

Car Towing Insurance

Car towing insurance is a misnomer. It provides road-side assistance (usually in the form of a tow) for drivers who run out of gas, have a mechanical breakdown, or flats. Note that most insurance companies cover towing costs for a non-driveable covered vehicle involved in an accident under collision coverage.

United Kingdom Laws regarding motor insurance

In 1930 the UK government introduced a law that required every person who used a vehicle on the road to have at least third party personal injury insurance. Today UK law is defined by the The Road Traffic Act which was last modified in 1991.
The Act requires all motorists to be insured against their liability for injuries to others (including passengers) and for damage to other persons' property resulting from use of a vehicle on a public road or in other public places. This is called Third Party Insurance. It is an offence to drive your car, or allow others to drive it, without at least Third Party insurance.'

The insurance certificate or cover note issued by the insurance company constitutes legal evidence that the vehicle specified on the document is indeed insured. The Law says that an authorised person, such as the police, may require a driver to produce an insurance certificate for inspection. If the driver cannot show the document immediately on request, then the driver will usually be issued a HORT/1 with seven days, as of midnight of the date of issue, to take a valid insurance certificate (and usually other driving documents as well) to a police station of the driver's choice. Failure to produce an insurance certificate is an offence.

Insurance is more expensive in Northern Ireland than in other parts of the UK.

Motorists in the UK are required to display a Vehicle excise duty disc in their car when it is kept or driven on public roads. This helps to ensure that most people have adequate insurance on their vehicles because you are required to produce an insurance certificate when you purchase the disc. However it is a known practice for some people to purchase insurance to gain the certificate and then to cancel the insurance and gain a full refund within the statutory 14 day cooling off period.

The cost of damage caused by uninsured and untraced drivers in the UK is funded by the Motor Insurers Bureau, a body which is funded by the premiums of insured motorists at an estimated current rate of £50 per year. Some victims of accidents caused by uninsured drivers have claimed compensation off the driver who caused their accident via a civil court or an out-of-court settlement, although this is rare as few uninsured drivers will have enough money to compensate their victims

car insurance

Coverage levels
Insurance can cover some or all of the following items:

1. The insured party
2. The insured vehicle
3. Third parties

Different policies specify the circumstances under which each item is covered. For example, a vehicle can be insured against theft, fire damage, or accident damage independently.

Public policy

In many countries it is compulsory to purchase auto insurance before driving on public roads. In the United States, penalties for not purchasing auto insurance vary by state, but often involve a substantial fine, license and/or registration suspension or revocation, as well as possible jail time in some states. Usually the minimum required by law is third party insurance to protect third parties against the financial consequences of loss, damage or injury caused by a vehicle. Typically, coverage against loss of or damage to the driver's own vehicle is optional - one notable exception to this is in Saskatchewan, where SGI provides collision coverage (less a $700 deductible) as part of its basic insurance policy. In South Australia Third Party Personal insurance from the State Government Insurance Corporation (SGIC) is included in the license registration fee. South Africa allocates a percentage of the money from petrol into the Road Accidents Fund, which goes towards compensating third parties in accidents.[1] Most countries relate insurance to both the car and the driver, however the degree of each varies greatly.

car insurance

Coverage levels
Insurance can cover some or all of the following items:

1) The insured party
2) The insured vehicle
3) Third parties
Different policies specify the circumstances under which each item is covered. For example, a vehicle can be insured against theft, fire damage, or accident damage independently.

Public policy

In many countries it is compulsory to purchase auto insurance before driving on public roads. In the United States, penalties for not purchasing auto insurance vary by state, but often involve a substantial fine, license and/or registration suspension or revocation, as well as possible jail time in some states. Usually the minimum required by law is third party insurance to protect third parties against the financial consequences of loss, damage or injury caused by a vehicle. Typically, coverage against loss of or damage to the driver's own vehicle is optional - one notable exception to this is in Saskatchewan, where SGI provides collision coverage (less a $700 deductible) as part of its basic insurance policy. In South Australia Third Party Personal insurance from the State Government Insurance Corporation (SGIC) is included in the license registration fee. South Africa allocates a percentage of the money from petrol into the Road Accidents Fund, which goes towards compensating third parties in accidents.[1] Most countries relate insurance to both the car and the driver, however the degree of each varies greatly.

Basis of premium charges

Depending on the jurisdiction, the insurance premium can be either mandated by the government or determined by the insurance company in accordance to a framework of regulations set by the government. Often, the insurer will have more freedom to set the price on physical damage coverages than on mandatory liability coverages.

When the premium is not mandated by the government, it is usually derived from the calculations of an actuary based on statistical data. The premium can vary depending on many factors that are believed to have an impact on the expected cost of future claims.[2] Those factors can include the car characteristics, the coverage selected (deductible, limit, covered perils), the profile of the driver (age, gender, driving history) and the usage of the car (commute to work or not, predicted annual distance driven).[3][4]

Gender

Men average more miles driven per year than women do, and have a proportionally higher accident involvement at all ages. Insurance companies cite women's lower accident involvement in keeping the youth surcharge lower for young women drivers than for their male counterparts but adult rates are generally unisex. Mistaken reference to the lower rate for young women as "the women's discount" has caused confusion that was evident in news reports on a recently defeated EC proposal to make it illegal to consider gender in assessing insurance premiums . [5]. Ending the discount would have made no difference to most women's premiums. Changing to per-mile charges, however, would benefit anyone whose car was driven less than average, including the majority of women who are overcharged at current per-year rates.

Age

Teen drivers who have no driving record will have higher car insurance premiums. However young drivers are often offered discounts if they undertake further driver training on recognised courses, such as the Pass Plus scheme in the U.K. In the U.S. many insurers offer a good grade discount to students with a good academic record and resident student discounts to those who live away from home. Generally insurance premiums tend to become lower at the age of 25. Senior drivers are often eligible for retirement discounts.

Distance

Some car insurance plans do not differentiate in regard to how much the car is used. However, methods of differentiation would include:

Reasonable estimation

Several car insurance plans rely on a reasonable estimation of the average annual distance expected to be driven which is provided by the insured. This discount benefits drivers who drive their cars infrequently but has no actuarial value since it is unverified.

Odometer-based systems

Cents Per Mile Now[6](1986) advocates classified odometer-mile rates. After the company's risk factors have been applied and the customer has accepted the per-mile rate offered, customers buy prepaid miles of insurance protection as needed, like buying gallons of gasoline. Insurance automatically ends when the odometer limit (recorded on the car’s insurance ID card) is reached unless more miles are bought. Customers keep track of miles on their own odometer to know when to buy more. The company does no after-the-fact billing of the customer, and the customer doesn't have to estimate a "future annual mileage" figure for the company to obtain a discount. In the event of a traffic stop, an officer could easily verify that the insurance is current by comparing the figure on the insurance card to that on the odometer.
Critics point out the possibility of cheating the system by odometer tampering. Although the newer electronic odometers are difficult to roll back, they can still be defeated by disconnecting the odometer wires and reconnecting them later. However, as the Cents Per Mile Now website points out: "As a practical matter, resetting odometers requires equipment plus expertise that makes stealing insurance risky and uneconomical. For example, in order to steal 20,000 miles of continuous protection while paying for only the 2,000 miles from 35,000 miles to 37,000 miles on the odometer, the resetting would have to be done at least nine times to keep the odometer reading within the narrow 2,000-mile covered range. There are also powerful legal deterrents to this way of stealing insurance protection. Odometers have always served as the measuring device for resale value, rental and leasing charges, warranty limits, mechanical breakdown insurance, and cents-per-mile tax deductions or reimbursements for business or government travel. Odometer tampering—detected during claim processing—voids the insurance and, under decades-old state and federal law, is punishable by heavy fines and jail."

Under the cents-per-mile system, rewards for driving less are delivered automatically without need for administratively cumbersome and costly technology. Uniform per-mile exposure measurement for the first time provides the basis for statistically valid rate classes. Insurer premium income automatically keeps pace with increases or decreases in driving activity, cutting back on resulting insurer demand for rate increases and preventing today's windfalls to insurers when decreased driving activity lowers costs but not premiums.

GPS-based system

In 1998, Progressive Insurance started a pilot program in Texas in which volunteers installed a GPS-based technology called Autograph in exchange for a discount. The device tracked their driving behavior and reported the results via cellular phone to the company.[7] Policyholders were reportedly more upset about having to pay for the expensive device than they were over privacy concerns.[8]

In 1996, Progressive filed for and obtained a US patent (US patent 5,797134) on their process. Progressive has also filed corresponding patent applications in Europe and Japan. UK auto insurer, Norwich Union, has obtained an exclusive license to Progressive's European patent application. They have recently completed a successful pilot test of the technology and it is now available commercially under the tradename "Pay As You Drive™"[9]

OBDII-based system

In 2004, Progressive launched another pilot program to allow policyholders to earn a discount on their premiums by consenting to use its TripSense device. TripSense connects to a car's OnBoard Diagnostic(OBD-II) port, which exists in all cars built after 1996. The discount is forfeited if the device is disconnected for a significant amount of time.[10]

Auto Insurance in the United States

Coverage Available

The consumer may be protected with different coverage types depending on what coverage the insured purchases.[11]

In the United States, liability insurance covers claims against the policy holder and generally, any other operator of the insured’s vehicle, provided they do not live at the same address as the policy holder and are not specifically excluded on the policy. In the case of those living at the same address, they must specifically be covered on the policy. Thus it is necessary for example, when a family member comes of driving age they must be added on to the policy. Liability insurance sometimes does not protect the policy holder if they operate any vehicles other than their own. When you drive a vehicle owned by another party, you are covered under that party’s policy. Non-owners policies may be offered that would cover an insured on any vehicle they drive. This coverage is available only to those who do not own their own vehicle and is sometimes required by the government for drivers who have previously been found at fault in an accident.

Generally, liability coverage does extend when you rent a car. Comprehensive policies ("full coverage") usually also apply to the rental vehicle, although this should be verified beforehand. Full coverage premiums are based on, among other factors, the value of the insured’s vehicle. This coverage may not apply to rental cars because the insurance company does not want to assume responsibility for a claim greater than the value of the insured’s vehicle, assuming that a rental car may be worth more than the insured’s vehicle. Most rental car companies offer insurance to cover damage to the rental vehicle. These policies may be unnecessary for many customers as credit card companies, such as Visa and MasterCard, now provide supplemental collision damage coverage to rental cars if the transaction is processed using one of their cards. These benefits are restrictive in terms of the types of vehicles covered.[12]

Liability
Liability coverage provides a fixed dollar amount of coverage for damages that an insured becomes legally liable to pay due to an accident or other negligence. For example, if an insured drives into a telephone pole and damages the pole, liability coverage pays for the damage to the pole. In this example, the insured also may become liable for other expenses related to damaging the telephone pole, such as loss of service claims (by the telephone company).

Liability coverage is available either as a combined single limit policy or as a split limit policy:

Combined Single Limit

A combined single limit combines property damage liability coverage and bodily injury coverage under one single combined limit. For example, an insured with a combine single liability limit strikes another vehicle and injures the driver and the passenger. Payments for the damages to the other driver's car, as well as payments for injury claims for the driver and passenger, would be paid out under this same coverage.

Split Limits

A split limit liability coverage policy splits the coverages into property damage coverage and bodily injury coverage. In the example given above, payments for the other driver's vehicle would be paid out under property damage coverage, and payments for the injuries would be paid out under bodily injury coverage.

Note that bodily injury liability coverage is also usually split as well into a maximum payment per person and a maximum payment per accident.

Collision

Collision coverage provides coverage for an insured's vehicle that is involved in an accident, subject to a deductible. This coverage is designed to provide payments to repair the damaged vehicle, or payment of the cash value of the vehicle if it is not repairable. Collision coverage is optional. Collision Damage Waiver (CDW) is the term used by rental car companies for collision coverage.

Comprehensive

Comprehensive (a.k.a. - Other Than Collision) coverage provides coverage, subject to a deductible, for an insured's vehicle that is damaged by incidents that are not considered Collisions. For example, fire, theft (or attempted theft), vandalism, weather, or impacts with animals are just some types of Comprehensive losses.

Uninsured/Underinsured Coverage

Uninsured/Underinsured coverage, also known as UM/UIM, provides coverage if another at-fault party either does not have insurance, or does not have enough insurance. In effect, your insurance company acts as at fault party's insurance company.

In the United States, the definition of an uninsured/underinsured motorist, and corresponding coverages, are set by the state you reside in.

Loss of Use
Loss of Use coverage, also known as rental coverage, provides reimbursement for rental expenses associated with having an insured vehicle repaired due to a covered loss. Loan/Lease Payoff

Loan/Lease Payoff coverage, also known as GAP coverage or GAP insurance, [13] was established in the early 1980's to provide protection to consumers based upon buying and market trends.

Due to the sharp decline in value immediately following purchase, there is generally a period in which the amount owed on the car loan exceeds the value of the vehicle, which is called "upside-down" or negative equity. Thus, if the vehicle is totalled at this point, the owner will still owe potentially thousands of dollars on the loan. The escalating price of cars, longer-term auto loans, and the increasing popularity of leasing gave birth to GAP protection. GAP waivers provide protection for consumers when a "gap" exists between the actual value of their vehicle and the amount of money owed to the bank or leasing company. In many instances this insurance will also pay the deductible on the primary insurance policy. These policies are often offered at the auto dealership as a comparatively low cost add on that can be put into the car loan which provides coverage for the duration of the loan.

Car Towing Insurance

Car towing insurance is a misnomer. It provides road-side assistance (usually in the form of a tow) for drivers who run out of gas, have a mechanical breakdown, or flats. Note that most insurance companies cover towing costs for a non-driveable covered vehicle involved in an accident under collision coverage.

United Kingdom Laws regarding motor insurance

In 1930 the UK government introduced a law that required every person who used a vehicle on the road to have at least third party personal injury insurance. Today UK law is defined by the The Road Traffic Act which was last modified in 1991.

The Act requires all motorists to be insured against their liability for injuries to others (including passengers) and for damage to other persons' property resulting from use of a vehicle on a public road or in other public places. This is called Third Party Insurance. It is an offence to drive your car, or allow others to drive it, without at least Third Party insurance.

The insurance certificate or cover note issued by the insurance company constitutes legal evidence that the vehicle specified on the document is indeed insured. The Law says that an authorised person, such as the police, may require a driver to produce an insurance certificate for inspection. If the driver cannot show the document immediately on request, then the driver will usually be issued a HORT/1 with seven days, as of midnight of the date of issue, to take a valid insurance certificate (and usually other driving documents as well) to a police station of the driver's choice. Failure to produce an insurance certificate is an offence.

Insurance is more expensive in Northern Ireland than in other parts of the UK.

Motorists in the UK are required to display a Vehicle excise duty disc in their car when it is kept or driven on public roads. This helps to ensure that most people have adequate insurance on their vehicles because you are required to produce an insurance certificate when you purchase the disc. However it is a known practice for some people to purchase insurance to gain the certificate and then to cancel the insurance and gain a full refund within the statutory 14 day cooling off period.

The cost of damage caused by uninsured and untraced drivers in the UK is funded by the Motor Insurers Bureau, a body which is funded by the premiums of insured motorists at an estimated current rate of £50 per year. Some victims of accidents caused by uninsured drivers have claimed compensation off the driver who caused their accident via a civil court or an out-of-court settlement, although this is rare as few uninsured drivers will have enough money to compensate their victims

school loan consolidation

Studen Loan Consolidation in the Federal Family Education Loan Program is designed to help students pay their Federally Backed student loans. There are many benefits to consolidating in the Federal Family Education Loan Program.
a) Fixed Interest Rate
b) Lower Monthley Payments
c) No Pre-Payment Penalties
d) Retain all your federal rights such as Deferment and Forebearance
e) Subsidized portions remain subsidized even after consolidating
f) Forgiveness rights for Stafford Loans are retained.

There is no downside to consolidating your loans. Even though the program increses the repayment term from the standard 10 year term to 15, 20, 25, or 30 years depending on your loan balance. But, your right to repay without pre-payment penalties makes the point moot. Maximum repayment terms are as follows:

$10,000 - $19,999 (15 years)
$20K - $39,999 (20 years)
$40k - $59,999 (25 years)
$60K + (30 years)

Ultimately the Federal Family Education Loan Program consolidation program provides you with financial freedom and felxibility. Additionally, there is a space on the application where you can set your own repayment term up to the maximum term for your loan balance.

Students should typically consolidate their loans after every time they switch schools, between any breaks (summer break not included), and whenever enrolled less than 6 credits. They should also consolidate while in their grace period to take advantage of the .6 in school/in grace reduction in interest rate. Most consolidation companies can save your entire grace period by holding the application until right before your grace period end date. Make sure you mention your grace period to the people you are consolidating with.

New legislation passed in June 2006 has also made it possible for students who only have a single lender to benefit from consolidating. These students will also benefit from a fixed interest rate even though it's not a consolidation in the true sense of the word.

Also, in July of 2006 new Stafford Loans were issued at a fixed rate of 6.8% and Parent Plus Loans at 7.9%. Purkins Loans are always issued at 5.0%. Students with Stafford Loans and Parent Plus Loans prior to July 2006 had variable rates. The rates were reset from 5.375% to 7.14% for Stafford Loans and from 6.1% to 7.94% for Parent Plus Loans.

The interest rate for a Federal Family Education Loan Program Consolidation loan is derrived by taking the weighted average rounded up to the nearest 1/8 of a percent. A consolidation of variable rate Stafford loans will typically lock you in at 6.625% (in grace) or 7.25% (out of grace). Some companies offer a 1/4 rate reduction for signing up for automatic check debit and an additional rate reduction for maintaining on-time payments for a specified amount of time.

A little more on weighted average:

Definition: An average thaty takes into account the proportional relevance of each component rather than treating each component equally.

Suppose you had these loans

$2,000 @ 4%
$5,000 @ 1%
$3,000 @ 10%

A standard average puts you at 5%.

Weighted average:

($2,000 x 4%) = 80
($5,000 x 1%) = 50
($3,000 x 10%) = 300
80 + 50 + 300 = 430/$10,000 = 4.3%

As you can see the $5,000 at 1% weighs more heavily on the interest rate than the other two loans. If you had a consolidation set for the exact same ammount of time as the orriginal loans you would pay EXACTLY the same ammount of money if a weighted average was used.

Consolidate your loans, it could only help you. If you get a call from a consolidation company make sure they are in the federal program and can provide you with a registered number with the US Department of Education.

Some tips on student loan consolidation rates

1) Give a thorough search before taking any decision on student loan consolidation rates. Choose a lender who is offering low monthly rates and provides good facilities.
2) Try to get only student loan consolidation as for student loans you have to pay differently to every loan provider. Student loan consolidation will take your all tensions in one package.
3) These days, some federal consolidation loans have a fixed rate for the life of your student loan. It's best to do research to see what the best interest rates and term you are eligible for. You can check online to calculate the interest rate on a new student consolidation loan based on the rates of your current student loans. You can then round up to the nearest 1/8th of a percent of the weighted average of the interest rates on your eligible student loans.
4) Federal consolidation rates can give you relief as you can extent your payment period up to 30 years. This way you can focus on your studies effectively and when you get a good job you can pay back all the debts.
5) Student loans consolidation is also made for school going students. This way you can get loans on low rates.
6) With a new student loan consolidation, you may be able to get a much better interest rate. Interest rates are now at an all time low. You may have been paying on debt you built up from several years ago, at high interest rates. Things change over time in the financial industry.